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Forms of Greek used from around the 16th century BC

Ancient Greek
Ἑλληνική Hellēnikḗ
Inscription almost the construction of the statue of Athena Parthenos in the Parthenon, 440/439 BC
Region	eastern Mediterranean
Linguistic communication family	Indo-European Hellenic Ancient Greek
Early course	Proto-Greek
Writing organisation	Greek alphabet
Language codes
ISO 639-2	`grc`
ISO 639-3	`grc` (includes all pre-modern stages)
Glottolog	`anci1242`
Map of Ancient (Homeric) Greece
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Aboriginal Greek includes the forms of the Greek linguistic communication used in ancient Greece and the aboriginal globe from around 1500 BC to 300 BC. It is often roughly divided into the following periods: Mycenaean Greek (c. 1400–1200 BC), Nighttime Ages (c. 1200–800 BC), the Archaic catamenia (c. 800–500 BC), and the Classical catamenia (c. 500–300 BC).^[1]

Ancient Greek was the linguistic communication of Homer and of fifth-century Athenian historians, playwrights, and philosophers. Information technology has contributed many words to English vocabulary and has been a standard discipline of study in educational institutions of the Western world since the Renaissance. This article primarily contains information about the Epic and Classical periods of the linguistic communication.

From the Hellenistic menstruation (c. 300 BC), Ancient Greek was followed past Koine Greek, which is regarded as a separate historical stage, although its primeval grade closely resembles Attic Greek and its latest class approaches Medieval Greek. In that location were several regional dialects of Ancient Greek, of which Attic Greek developed into Koine.

Dialects

Aboriginal Greek was a pluricentric language, divided into many dialects. The main dialect groups are Attic and Ionic, Aeolic, Arcadocypriot, and Doric, many of them with several subdivisions. Some dialects are plant in standardized literary forms used in literature, while others are attested but in inscriptions.

There are also several historical forms. Homeric Greek is a literary grade of Primitive Greek (derived primarily from Ionic and Aeolic) used in the epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, and in afterward poems past other authors. Homeric Greek had significant differences in grammar and pronunciation from Classical Cranium and other Classical-era dialects.

History

The origins, early form and development of the Hellenic language family are not well understood because of a lack of contemporaneous testify. Several theories be about what Hellenic dialect groups may have existed betwixt the divergence of early Greek-similar voice communication from the common Proto-Indo-European language and the Classical menstruum. They have the same general outline just differ in some of the particular. The merely attested dialect from this period^[a] is Mycenaean Greek, but its relationship to the historical dialects and the historical circumstances of the times imply that the overall groups already existed in some form.

Scholars assume that major aboriginal Greek menses dialect groups adult not after than 1120 BC, at the time of the Dorian invasions—and that their kickoff appearances as precise alphabetic writing began in the 8th century BC. The invasion would not be "Dorian" unless the invaders had some cultural relationship to the historical Dorians. The invasion is known to have displaced population to the later on Cranium-Ionic regions, who regarded themselves every bit descendants of the population displaced past or contending with the Dorians.

The Greeks of this period believed at that place were three major divisions of all Greek people – Dorians, Aeolians, and Ionians (including Athenians), each with their own defining and distinctive dialects. Allowing for their oversight of Arcadian, an obscure mountain dialect, and Cypriot, far from the center of Greek scholarship, this partitioning of people and language is quite similar to the results of modernistic archaeological-linguistic investigation.

One standard formulation for the dialects is:^[2]

Westward Group
- Northwest Greek
- Doric
Aeolic Grouping
- Aegean/Asiatic Aeolic
- Thessalian
- Boeotian
Ionic-Attic Group
- Attic
- Ionic
  - Euboean and colonies in Italy
  - Cycladic
  - Asiatic Ionic
Arcadocypriot Greek
- Idealized
- Cypriot

West vs. non-West Greek is the strongest-marked and earliest segmentation, with non-West in subsets of Ionic-Attic (or Cranium-Ionic) and Aeolic vs. Arcadocypriot, or Aeolic and Arcado-Cypriot vs. Ionic-Cranium. Often not-West is called 'East Greek'.

Arcadocypriot plain descended more closely from the Mycenaean Greek of the Bronze Age.

Boeotian had come under a strong Northwest Greek influence, and can in some respects be considered a transitional dialect. Thessalian likewise had come under Northwest Greek influence, though to a lesser degree.

Pamphylian Greek, spoken in a pocket-size surface area on the southwestern coast of Anatolia and piffling preserved in inscriptions, may be either a fifth major dialect grouping, or it is Mycenaean Greek overlaid past Doric, with a not-Greek native influence.

Regarding the speech of the ancient Macedonians diverse theories have been put forward, but the epigraphic activity and the archaeological discoveries in the Greek region of Macedonia during the last decades has brought to light documents, amid which the beginning texts written in Macedonian, such every bit the Pella curse tablet, every bit Hatzopoulos and other scholars note.^[iv] ^[v] Based on the conclusions drawn by several studies and findings such as Pella expletive tablet, Emilio Crespo and other scholars suggest that aboriginal Macedonian was a Northwest Doric dialect,^[half-dozen] ^[seven] ^[five] which shares isoglosses with its neighboring Thessalian dialects spoken in northeastern Thessaly.^[six] ^[five]

Most of the dialect sub-groups listed above had further subdivisions, generally equivalent to a city-land and its surrounding territory, or to an island. Doric notably had several intermediate divisions as well, into Island Doric (including Cretan Doric), Southern Peloponnesus Doric (including Laconian, the dialect of Sparta), and Northern Peloponnesus Doric (including Corinthian).

The Lesbian dialect was Aeolic Greek.

All the groups were represented by colonies beyond Hellenic republic proper as well, and these colonies generally developed local characteristics, ofttimes under the influence of settlers or neighbors speaking different Greek dialects.

The dialects exterior the Ionic grouping are known mainly from inscriptions, notable exceptions being:

fragments of the works of the poet Sappho from the island of Lesbos, in Aeolian, and
the poems of the Boeotian poet Pindar and other lyric poets, normally in Doric.

After the conquests of Alexander the Bully in the tardily 4th century BC, a new international dialect known as Koine or Common Greek developed, largely based on Attic Greek, but with influence from other dialects. This dialect slowly replaced most of the older dialects, although the Doric dialect has survived in the Tsakonian linguistic communication, which is spoken in the region of modern Sparta. Doric has besides passed downwardly its aorist terminations into most verbs of Demotic Greek. By nigh the 6th century AD, the Koine had slowly metamorphosed into Medieval Greek.

Phrygian is an extinct Indo-European linguistic communication of West and Central Anatolia, which is considered past some linguists to have been closely related to Greek.^[8] ^[9] ^[10] Among Indo-European branches with living descendants, Greek is often argued to have the closest genetic ties with Armenian^[11] (run into as well Graeco-Armenian) and Indo-Iranian languages (see Graeco-Aryan).^[12] ^[13]

Phonology

Differences from Proto-Indo-European

Ancient Greek differs from Proto-Indo-European (PIE) and other Indo-European languages in certain means. In phonotactics, ancient Greek words could end only in a vowel or /n s r/; final stops were lost, as in γάλα "milk", compared with γάλακτος "of milk" (genitive). Ancient Greek of the classical catamenia also differed in both the inventory and distribution of original PIE phonemes due to numerous sound changes,^[14] notably the following:

PIE *s became /h/ at the beginning of a word (debuccalization): Latin sex , English half dozen, ancient Greek ἕξ /héks/.
PIE *s was elided between vowels after an intermediate pace of debuccalization: Sanskrit janasas , Latin generis (where south > r by rhotacism), Greek * genesos > * genehos > ancient Greek γένεος (/ɡéneos/), Attic γένους (/ɡénoːs/) "of a kind".
PIE *y /j/ became /h/ (debuccalization) or /(d)z/ (fortition): Sanskrit yas , ancient Greek ὅς /hós/ "who" (relative pronoun); Latin iugum , English yoke, ancient Greek ζυγός /zyɡós/.
PIE *w , which occurred in Mycenaean and some non-Attic dialects, was lost: early on Doric ϝέργον /wérɡon/, English work, Attic Greek ἔργον /érɡon/.
PIE and Mycenaean labiovelars changed to obviously stops (labials, dentals, and velars) in the later on Greek dialects: for instance, PIE *kʷ became /p/ or /t/ in Cranium: Attic Greek ποῦ /pôː/ "where?", Latin quō ; Attic Greek τίς /tís/, Latin quis "who?".
PIE "voiced aspirated" stops *bʰ dʰ ǵʰ gʰ gʷʰ were devoiced and became the aspirated stops φ θ χ /pʰ tʰ kʰ/ in ancient Greek.

Phonemic inventory

The pronunciation of ancient Greek was very different from that of Modern Greek. Ancient Greek had long and brusque vowels; many diphthongs; double and single consonants; voiced, voiceless, and aspirated stops; and a pitch accent. In Modern Greek, all vowels and consonants are short. Many vowels and diphthongs once pronounced distinctly are pronounced as /i/ (iotacism). Some of the stops and glides in diphthongs have go fricatives, and the pitch emphasis has inverse to a stress emphasis. Many of the changes took place in the Koine Greek flow. The writing system of Modernistic Greek, however, does not reflect all pronunciation changes.

The examples below correspond Cranium Greek in the 5th century BC. Ancient pronunciation cannot exist reconstructed with certainty, only Greek from the period is well documented, and there is little disagreement among linguists every bit to the full general nature of the sounds that the letters represent.

Consonants

		Bilabial	Dental	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		μ m	ν n	γ (ŋ)
Plosive	voiced	β b	δ d	γ ɡ
	voiceless	π p	τ t	κ k
	aspirated	φ pʰ	θ tʰ	χ kʰ
Fricative			σ s		h
Trill			ρ r
Lateral			λ l

[ŋ] occurred as an allophone of /n/ that was used earlier velars and equally an allophone of /ɡ/ earlier nasals. /r/ was probably voiceless when discussion-initial and geminated (written ῥ and ῥῥ ). /s/ was assimilated to [z] before voiced consonants.

Vowels

	Front		Back
	unrounded	rounded	Back
Close	ι i iː	υ y yː
Close-mid	ε ει e eː		ο ου o oː
Open-mid	η ɛː		ω ɔː
Open			α a aː

/oː/ raised to [uː], probably by the fourth century BC.

Morphology

Greek, similar all of the older Indo-European languages, is highly inflected. It is highly archaic in its preservation of Proto-Indo-European forms. In aboriginal Greek, nouns (including proper nouns) have five cases (nominative, genitive, dative, accusative, and vocative), three genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter), and three numbers (singular, dual, and plural). Verbs have four moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and optative) and iii voices (active, eye, and passive), also equally 3 persons (outset, second, and third) and various other forms. Verbs are conjugated through seven combinations of tenses and attribute (more often than not but chosen "tenses"): the nowadays, future, and imperfect are imperfective in attribute; the aorist, nowadays perfect, pluperfect and future perfect are perfective in aspect. Most tenses display all four moods and three voices, although there is no future subjunctive or imperative. Likewise, there is no imperfect subjunctive, optative or imperative. The infinitives and participles correspond to the finite combinations of tense, aspect, and voice.

Augment

The indicative of past tenses adds (conceptually, at least) a prefix /e-/, called the augment. This was probably originally a separate word, meaning something like "and then", added because tenses in PIE had primarily aspectual meaning. The augment is added to the indicative of the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect, merely not to whatsoever of the other forms of the aorist (no other forms of the imperfect and pluperfect exist).

The ii kinds of augment in Greek are syllabic and quantitative. The syllabic augment is added to stems start with consonants, and but prefixes eastward (stems beginning with r, withal, add together er). The quantitative augment is added to stems outset with vowels, and involves lengthening the vowel:

a, ā, e, ē → ē
i, ī → ī
o, ō → ō
u, ū → ū
ai → ēi
ei → ēi or ei
oi → ōi
au → ēu or au
european union → ēu or eu
ou → ou

Some verbs augment irregularly; the about common variation is eastward → ei. The irregularity can exist explained diachronically by the loss of s between vowels, or that of the letter w, which afflicted the augment when it was word-initial. In verbs with a preposition as a prefix, the augment is placed not at the start of the word, but between the preposition and the original verb. For case, προσ(-)βάλλω (I assail) goes to προσέβαλoν in the aorist. However compound verbs consisting of a prefix that is non a preposition retain the broaden at the start of the word: αὐτο(-)μολῶ goes to ηὐτομόλησα in the aorist.

Following Homer'due south practice, the augment is sometimes not fabricated in poetry, especially epic poetry.

The augment sometimes substitutes for reduplication; come across beneath.

Reduplication

Almost all forms of the perfect, pluperfect, and future perfect reduplicate the initial syllable of the verb stem. (Note that a few irregular forms of perfect do not reduplicate, whereas a handful of irregular aorists reduplicate.) The three types of reduplication are:

Syllabic reduplication: Most verbs kickoff with a unmarried consonant, or a cluster of a stop with a sonorant, add together a syllable consisting of the initial consonant followed by due east. An aspirated consonant, withal, reduplicates in its unaspirated equivalent (come across Grassmann's law).
Broaden: Verbs beginning with a vowel, as well as those offset with a cluster other than those indicated previously (and occasionally for a few other verbs) reduplicate in the same way equally the broaden. This remains in all forms of the perfect, not just the indicative.
Cranium reduplication: Some verbs starting time with an a, e or o, followed past a sonorant (or occasionally d or chiliad), reduplicate by calculation a syllable consisting of the initial vowel and following consonant, and lengthening the following vowel. Hence er → erēr, an → anēn, ol → olōl, ed → edēd. This is non really specific to Attic Greek, despite its name, just it was generalized in Attic. This originally involved reduplicating a cluster consisting of a laryngeal and sonorant, hence h₃50 → h₃leh₃l → olōl with normal Greek development of laryngeals. (Forms with a end were analogous.)

Irregular duplication can exist understood diachronically. For example, lambanō (root lab ) has the perfect stem eilēpha (not * lelēpha ) considering it was originally slambanō , with perfect seslēpha , becoming eilēpha through compensatory lengthening.

Reduplication is also visible in the present tense stems of certain verbs. These stems add a syllable consisting of the root'due south initial consonant followed past i. A nasal stop appears afterwards the reduplication in some verbs.^[15]

Writing system

The earliest extant examples of ancient Greek writing (circa 1450 BC) are in the syllabic script Linear B. Kickoff in the 8th century BC, however, the Greek alphabet became standard, albeit with some variation among dialects. Early texts are written in boustrophedon style, but left-to-right became standard during the archetype period. Modern editions of aboriginal Greek texts are usually written with accents and breathing marks, interword spacing, modern punctuation, and sometimes mixed example, but these were all introduced later.

Sample texts

The beginning of Homer's Iliad exemplifies the Primitive period of ancient Greek (see Homeric Greek for more than details):

Μῆνιν ἄειδε, θεά, Πηληϊάδεω Ἀχιλῆος
οὐλομένην, ἣ μυρί' Ἀχαιοῖς ἄλγε' ἔθηκε,
πολλὰς δ' ἰφθίμους ψυχὰς Ἄϊδι προΐαψεν
ἡρώων, αὐτοὺς δὲ ἑλώρια τεῦχε κύνεσσιν
οἰωνοῖσί τε πᾶσι· Διὸς δ' ἐτελείετο βουλή·
ἐξ οὗ δὴ τὰ πρῶτα διαστήτην ἐρίσαντε
Ἀτρεΐδης τε ἄναξ ἀνδρῶν καὶ δῖος Ἀχιλλεύς.

The get-go of Apology by Plato exemplifies Attic Greek from the Classical menstruum of ancient Greek:

Ὅτι μὲν ὑμεῖς, ὦ ἄνδρες Ἀθηναῖοι, πεπόνθατε ὑπὸ τῶν ἐμῶν κατηγόρων, οὐκ οἶδα· ἐγὼ δ' οὖν καὶ αὐτὸς ὑπ' αὐτῶν ὀλίγου ἐμαυτοῦ ἐπελαθόμην, οὕτω πιθανῶς ἔλεγον. Καίτοι ἀληθές γε ὡς ἔπος εἰπεῖν οὐδὲν εἰρήκασιν.

Using the IPA:

Transliterated into the Latin alphabet using a modern version of the Erasmian scheme:

Hóti mèn hūmeîs, ô ándres Athēnaîoi, pepónthate hupò tôn emôn katēgórōn, ouk oîda: egṑ d' oûn kaì autòs hup' autōn olígou emautoû epelathómēn, hoútō pithanôs élegon. Kaítoi alēthés ge hōs épos eipeîn oudèn eirḗkāsin.

Translated into English:

How you, men of Athens, are feeling nether the power of my accusers, I exercise not know: actually, fifty-fifty I myself almost forgot who I was because of them, they spoke then persuasively. And yet, loosely speaking, nothing they accept said is true.

Modern use

In pedagogy

The study of ancient Greek in European countries in addition to Latin occupied an important identify in the syllabus from the Renaissance until the commencement of the 20th century. This was truthful equally well in the United States, where many of the nation's Founders received a classically based pedagogy.^[16] Latin was emphasized in American colleges, but Greek also was required in the Colonial and Early National eras,^[17] and the report of ancient Hellenic republic became increasingly pop in the mid-to-late Nineteenth Century, the age of American philhellenism.^[xviii] In detail, female person intellectuals of the era designated the mastering of ancient Greek as essential in becoming a "woman of letters."^[19]

Ancient Greek is notwithstanding taught as a compulsory or optional subject especially at traditional or elite schools throughout Europe, such as public schools and grammar schools in the United Kingdom. Information technology is compulsory in the liceo classico in Italian republic, in the gymnasium in holland, in some classes in Republic of austria, in klasična gimnazija (grammer school – orientation: classical languages) in Croatia, in classical studies in ASO in Kingdom of belgium and it is optional in the humanities-oriented gymnasium in Germany (usually as a tertiary language after Latin and English, from the age of 14 to xviii). In 2006/07, xv,000 pupils studied ancient Greek in Germany according to the Federal Statistical Role of Germany, and 280,000 pupils studied it in Italia.^[20] It is a compulsory subject alongside Latin in the humanities branch of the Spanish bachillerato. Ancient Greek is besides taught at most major universities worldwide, ofttimes combined with Latin equally office of the report of classics. In 2010 it was offered in iii primary schools in the United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland, to boost children'south language skills,^[21] ^[22] and was one of seven foreign languages which primary schools could teach 2014 as part of a major drive to boost instruction standards.^[23] ^{[ needs update ]}

Ancient Greek is besides taught as a compulsory subject in all gymnasiums and lyceums in Greece.^[24] ^[25] Starting in 2001, an annual international competition "Exploring the Ancient Greek Language and Civilisation" (Greek: Διαγωνισμός στην Αρχαία Ελληνική Γλώσσα και Γραμματεία) was run for upper secondary students through the Greek Ministry of National Education and Religious Diplomacy, with Greek language and cultural organisations equally co-organisers.^[26] Information technology appears to have ceased in 2010, having failed to proceeds the recognition and acceptance of teachers.^[27]

Modern real-world usage

Mod authors rarely write in ancient Greek, though Jan Křesadlo wrote some verse and prose in the language, and Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone,^[28] some volumes of Asterix,^[29] and The Adventures of Alix accept been translated into ancient Greek. Ὀνόματα Kεχιασμένα (Onomata Kechiasmena) is the first magazine of crosswords and puzzles in ancient Greek.^[30] Its offset issue appeared in April 2015 as an annex to Hebdomada Aenigmatum. Alfred Rahlfs included a preface, a short history of the Septuagint text, and other front matter translated into ancient Greek in his 1935 edition of the Septuagint; Robert Hanhart likewise included the introductory remarks to the 2006 revised Rahlfs–Hanhart edition in the language every bit well.^[31] Akropolis Earth News reports weekly a summary of the most important news in ancient Greek.^[32]

Ancient Greek is besides used by organizations and individuals, mainly Greek, who wish to announce their respect, admiration or preference for the employ of this language. This use is sometimes considered graphical, nationalistic or humorous. In whatever case, the fact that modernistic Greeks tin can withal wholly or partly sympathize texts written in non-archaic forms of ancient Greek shows the affinity of the modern Greek language to its ancestral predecessor.^[32]

Ancient Greek is often used in the coinage of mod technical terms in the European languages: come across English words of Greek origin. Latinized forms of ancient Greek roots are used in many of the scientific names of species and in scientific terminology.

Run across besides

Ancient Greek dialects
Ancient Greek grammar
Ancient Greek accent
Greek alphabet
Greek diacritics
Greek language
Hellenic languages
Katharevousa
Koine Greek
List of Greek and Latin roots in English language
List of Greek phrases (mostly ancient Greek)
Medieval Greek
Mod Greek
Mycenaean Greek
Proto-Greek language
Varieties of Modern Greek

Notes

^ Mycenaean Greek is imprecisely attested and somewhat reconstructive due to its being written in an ill-fitting syllabary (Linear B).

References

^ Ralli, Angela (2012). "Greek". Revue belge de Philologie et d'Histoire. xc (3): 964. doi:10.3406/rbph.2012.8269. Archived from the original on 30 September 2022. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
^ Newton, Brian E.; Ruijgh, Cornelis Judd (13 Apr 2018). "Greek Language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on xx May 2019. Retrieved 22 May 2019.
^ Roger D. Woodard (2008), "Greek dialects", in: The Aboriginal Languages of Europe, ed. R. D. Woodard, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 51.
^ Hornblower, Simon (2002). "Macedon, Thessaly and Boiotia". The Greek World, 479-323 BC (Third ed.). Routledge. p. 90. ISBN0-415-16326-nine.
^ ^a ^b ^c Hatzopoulos, Miltiades B. (2018). "Recent Enquiry in the Aboriginal Macedonian Dialect: Consolidation and New Perspectives". In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.). Studies in Aboriginal Greek Dialects: From Fundamental Greece to the Black Bounding main. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 299–324. ISBN978-three-11-053081-0. Archived from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 8 Nov 2020.
^ ^a ^b Crespo, Emilio (2018). "The Softening of Obstruent Consonants in the Macedonian Dialect". In Giannakis, Georgios K.; Crespo, Emilio; Filos, Panagiotis (eds.). Studies in Ancient Greek Dialects: From Central Hellenic republic to the Black Sea. Walter de Gruyter. p. 329. ISBN978-3-11-053081-0.
^ Dosuna, J. Méndez (2012). "Aboriginal Macedonian as a Greek dialect: A disquisitional survey on recent piece of work (Greek, English, French, German text)". In Giannakis, Georgios K. (ed.). Ancient Macedonia: Language, History, Culture. Eye for Greek Language. p. 145. ISBN978-960-7779-52-half-dozen.
^ Brixhe, Cl. "Le Phrygien". In Fr. Bader (ed.), Langues indo-européennes, pp. 165-178, Paris: CNRS Editions.
^ Brixhe, Claude (2008). "Phrygian". In Woodard, Roger D (ed.). The Ancient Languages of Asia Modest . Cambridge University Press. pp. 69–fourscore. ISBN978-0-521-68496-5. "Unquestionably, yet, Phrygian is most closely linked with Greek." (p. 72).
^ Obrador-Cursach, Bartomeu (1 December 2019). "On the place of Phrygian amongst the Indo-European languages". Journal of Language Relationship (in Russian). 17 (iii–4): 243. doi:ten.31826/jlr-2019-173-407. S2CID 215769896. "With the electric current country of our cognition, nosotros can affirm that Phrygian is closely related to Greek."
^ James Clackson. Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge University Press, 2007, pp. 11-12.
^ Benjamin Westward. Fortson. Indo-European Language and Culture. Blackwell, 2004, p. 181.
^ Henry One thousand. Hoenigswald, "Greek," The Indo-European Languages, ed. Anna Giacalone Ramat and Paolo Ramat (Routledge, 1998 pp. 228-260), p. 228.
BBC: Languages across Europe: Greek Archived 14 November 2020 at the Wayback Machine
^ Fortson, Benjamin Westward. (2004). Indo-European language and civilisation: an introduction . Malden, Mass: Blackwell. pp. 226–231. ISBN978-1405103152. OCLC 54529041.
^ Palmer, Leonard (1996). The Greek Linguistic communication . Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. p. 262. ISBN978-0-8061-2844-iii.
^ 30-six of the eighty-ix men who signed the Declaration of Independence and attended the Constitutional Convention went to a colonial college, all of which offered only the classical curricula. Richard Thou. Gummere, The American Colonial Mind and the Classical Tradition, p.66 (1963). Access to Harvard, for instance, required that the applicant: "Can readily make and speak or write true Latin prose and has skill in making poetry, and is competently grounded in the Greek language so as to be able to metaphrase and grammatically to resolve ordinary Greek, as in the Greek Testament, Isocrates, and the minor poets." Meyer Reinhold, Classica Americana: The Greek and Roman Heritage in the United States, p.27 (1984).
^ Harvard'due south curriculum was patterned after those of Oxford and Cambridge, and the curricula of other Colonial colleges followed Harvard's. Lawrence A. Cremin, American Educational activity: The Colonial Experience, 1607-1783, pp. 128-129 (1970), and Frederick Rudolph, Curriculum: A History of the American Undergraduate Course of Study Since 1636, pp. 31-32 (1978)
^ Caroline Winterer, The Culture of Classicism: Ancient Greece and Rome in American Cultural Life, 1780-1910, pp.3-4 (2002).
^ Yopie Prins, Ladies' Greek: Victorian Translations of Tragedy, pp. 5-6 (2017). See also Timothy Kearley, Roman Constabulary, Classical Instruction, and Limits on Classical Participation in America into the Twentieth-Century, pp. 54-55, 97-98 (2022)
^ "Ministry publication" (PDF). world wide web.edscuola.it. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 September 2018. Retrieved 27 Oct 2010.
^ "Ancient Greek 'to be taught in country schools'". The Daily Telegraph. 30 July 2010. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved three May 2015.
^ "Now look, Latin'southward fine, but Greek might exist fifty-fifty Beta" Archived 3 August 2010 at the Wayback Machine, TES Editorial, 2010 - TSL Education Ltd.
^ More primary schools to offer Latin and ancient Greek Archived 13 June 2018 at the Wayback Car, The Telegraph, 26 November 2012
^ "Ωρολόγιο Πρόγραμμα των μαθημάτων των Α, Β, Γ τάξεων του Hμερησίου Γυμνασίου". Archived from the original on 1 June 2015. Retrieved three May 2015.
^ "ΩΡΟΛΟΓΙΟ ΠΡΟΓΡΑΜΜΑ ΓΕΝΙΚΟΥ ΛΥΚΕΙΟΥ". Archived from the original on 30 September 2022. Retrieved three May 2015.
^ "Annex to 2012 Greek statistics" (PDF). UNESCO. 2012. p. 26. Archived (PDF) from the original on xv December 2018. Retrieved fourteen December 2018.
^ "Proceedings of the 2nd Pan-hellenic Congress for the Promotion of Innovation in Education". Two. 2016: 548.
^ Areios Potēr kai ē tu philosophu lithos, Bloomsbury 2004, ISBN 1-58234-826-X
^ "Asterix speaks Attic (classical Greek) - Greece (ancient)". Asterix effectually the World - the many Languages of Asterix. 22 May 2011. Archived from the original on 30 September 2011. Retrieved 12 July 2011.
^ "Enigmistica: nasce prima rivista in greco antico 2015". 4 May 2015. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 10 September 2018.
^ Rahlfs, Alfred, and Hanhart, Robert (eds.), Septuaginta, editio altera (Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft, 2006).
^ ^a ^b "Akropolis World News". www.akwn.net. Archived from the original on 22 September 2016.

External links

Greek Wikisource has original text related to this article:

Classical Greek Online by Winfred P. Lehmann and Jonathan Slocum, free online lessons at the Linguistics Research Centre at the Academy of Texas at Austin
Online Greek resource – Dictionaries, grammar, virtual libraries, fonts, etc.
Alpheios – Combines LSJ, Autenrieth, Smyth'southward grammar and inflection tables in a browser add together-on for utilise on any web site
Ancient Greek bones lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database
Ancient Greek Swadesh listing of basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary'due south Swadesh list appendix)
"Greek Linguistic communication". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). 1911.
Slavonic – online editor for Ancient Greek
glottothèque - Ancient Indo-European Grammars online, an online collection of videos on various Aboriginal Indo-European languages, including Ancient Greek

Grammar learning

A more extensive grammar of the Ancient Greek language written by J. Rietveld Archived 7 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine
Recitation of classics books
Perseus Greek dictionaries
Greek-Language.com – Information on the history of the Greek linguistic communication, application of modern Linguistics to the study of Greek, and tools for learning Greek
Free Lessons in Aboriginal Greek, Bilingual Libraries, Forum
A critical survey of websites devoted to Ancient Greek
Ancient Greek Tutorials – Berkeley Language Center of the University of California
A Digital Tutorial For Ancient Greek Based on White'south First Greek Book
New Testament Greek
Acropolis Globe News – A summary of the latest world news in Ancient Greek, Juan Coderch, University of St Andrews

Classical texts

Perseus – Greek and Roman Materials
Ancient Greek Texts

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek

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